It has been observed that the driving force behind the implementation of many foreign languages in the education systems is not simply a desire to prepare students for a global economy but also a result of multiple social and political factors. The last part speaks of the future directions in light of the materialization of new methods, approaches, and media for second language education.

The fourth part identifies several thorny issues in second language education that deserve serious attention from policymakers. The third part sketches the major progress that has been made. The second part focuses on policy efforts directed towards improving the quality of second language education. The first part provides a historical background of second language education in the region. We selected Jordan, Tunisia, Turkey, and Iran as representatives of the Middle East and North Africa due to the fact that what is taking place at present in these countries illustrates themes and topics which characterize the latest developments in the fields of language teaching and language planning. We consider here a representative number of cases covering a wide geographical area of the region. This chapter is intended to serve two main purposes: (1) to survey progress and problems in the development of second language education in the Middle East and North Africa and (2) to look at some of the policies and theoretical constructs pertaining to second language education in a selected number of countries. Just like the case in many parts of the world, second language education has been accorded much importance in the Middle East and North Africa.

In the translation process, implicitation and inaccurate translation shifts are very obvious, whereas in some cases they affect the functions of the conjunctive particle вЂњЩ€/wa.вЂќ Hence, a disconnection between verses or topics occurs on other occasions, different functions are provided. Results reveal that the conjunctive particle вЂњЩ€/waвЂќ repeated intra-sententially in the Holy Quran performs resumptive, additive, circumstantial and commentative functions and that the resumptive function is played more frequently than the others. Besides, the study endeavors to figure out if cohesive shifts such as implicitation and inaccurate translation are employed in the English translation of this conjunctive particle, and the impact of such shifts on the functions of the aforementioned conjunctive particle. This study, therefore, attempts to find out whether the intra-sentential repetition of the conjunctive particle вЂњЩ€/waвЂќ in the Quran denotes the same function or different ones. In the Holy Quran, conjunctive particles are an important stylistic device deserving special concern, especially if they undergo intra-sentential repetition. Two functions of kama (similarity and exemplification) are listed in RST while the other two are incorporated.Д¬onjunctive particles are purposely employed in the text and their translation must be done with careful consideration. In the light of Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) proposed by Mann and Thompson (1987), kama was found to serve four common functions: elaboration (around 50 %), similarity (around 19 %), evidence (16 %), and exemplification (13 %). This obviously indicates that kama is commonly used in the language of Arabic journalistic discourse, which calls for paying attention to its usage in such a type of discourse. The current findings show that kama is found to achieve 290 occurrences in the corpus under investigation. The motivation for the study is that although it is frequently used in the written form of Arabic (particularly in the language of Arabic media), the discourse marker kama is largely neglected and very few has been said about it in the present literature on Arabic discourse markers. The journalistic discourse is chosen on the basis that it is considered as the best representative of the contemporary written Arabic and it receives a wide readership in the Arabic-speaking countries. The corpus covers three distinct sub-genres of journalistic discourse: opinion articles, news reports, and sport reports. To this end, the study compiled a small-scale corpus of journalistic discourse taken from two prominent Arabic news websites: and. The study aims at examining the functions of the discourse marker Kama in the Arabic journalistic discourse in the light of Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) proposed by Mann and Thompson (1987).

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